Recent advances of gallium-based liquid metals: Properties, patterning strategies, and applications in soft electronics

Gallium-based liquid metals (LMs) are emerging as versatile functional materials for next-generation stretchable, wearable, and bio-integrated electronics. Their combined attributes of metallic conductivity, mechanical softness, and room temperature fluidity allow for applications beyond the limitations of conventional rigid conductors. However, despite their promise, intrinsic challenges such as high surface tension, uncontrolled wetting, and poor substrate adhesion remain major obstacles to their practical utilization. Recent advances in LM micro-patterning strategies—including surface energy modulation, chemical treatment, metal adhesion layering, and electrochemical control—have substantially improved printing resolution and device integration. Simultaneously, the development of LM particle composites with tunable rheological and thermal properties has enabled the scalable fabrication of soft electromagnetic interference shielding films and Joule heating devices. LM functionality has been further extended by bio-inspired applications that integrate patterning strategies with neuromorphic electronics, as demonstrated by artificial synaptic interfaces and electrochemically actuated soft robotics. Bridging the intrinsic fluidity of LMs with electronic functionality establishes a pathway toward reconfigurable, adaptive, and human-compatible systems. Despite the remaining challenges, future research directions highlight the potential of gallium-based LMs as a central platform for intelligent, closed-loop soft electronics.