Comprehensive understanding and underlying molecular mechanisms of the adaptogenic effects of Panax ginseng

Panax ginseng Meyer, a traditional herbal remedy with a long history, has been widely used worldwide. Phytochemical studies have shown that its physiological activity is due to a variety of active compounds, and extensive research has demonstrated the adaptogenic potential of ginseng in various physiological and pathological contexts. However, the molecular mechanisms supporting its adaptogenic effects remain inadequately elucidated, leading to undervaluation of its adaptogenic properties. This review uses a comprehensive literature analysis to examine five major health benefits attributed to ginseng extracts or derivatives: anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-fatigue, cardiovascular protection, and cognitive enhancement. Moreover, it categorizes the biomarkers identified in each efficacy study and analyzes their interaction networks using KEGG pathway information. In that way, four key biomarkers pivotal to the adaptogenic attributes of P. ginseng are identified: superoxide dismutase, tumor necrosis factor, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2, and caspase-1. These biomarkers play an integral role in the manifestation of P. ginseng's five major effects, contributing significantly to its adaptogenic efficacy. This novel approach to understanding adaptogenic mechanisms is intended to offer innovative insights into the pharmacological effects of P. ginseng and its derivatives.